Universal Performance Prediction for Gated and Free-Running Geiger-Mode Avalanche Photodiodes

This letter proposes a universal discrete-time recurrence (UDR) method to predict the response performance of Geiger-mode avalanche photodiodes (GM-APDs), where performance prediction for a free-running GM-APD is realized beyond the gate-limit assumption for the first time. The dead time effect is summarized as the discrete-time correlation law, and the afterpulsing is first incorporated in the performance prediction theory as an equivalent noise source. Simulations with appropriate parameters verified the high accuracy and low calculation-time requirements of the UDR method.