Polyclonal spread of colistin resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae in Croatian hospitals and outpatient setting.

Introduction Recently, a marked increase in the rate of colistin resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae was observed in Croatian hospitals and the outpatient setting. This prompted us to analyze the molecular epidemiology of these isolates and the mechanisms of spread. Methods In total 46 colistin-resistant K. pneumoniae isolates from five hospitals and the community were analyzed. The presence of genes encoding broad and extended-spectrum β-lactamases, plasmid-mediated AmpC β-lactamases and carbapenemases was determined by PCR. Plasmids were characterized by PCR based replicon typing. Isolates were genotyped by pulsed-field gel electrophoresis. Virulence traits such as hemolysins, hyperviscosity and resistance to serum bactericidal activity were determined by phenotypic methods. Results High resistance rates were observed for cefuroxime, ceftazidime, cefotaxime, ceftriaxone and ertapenem, ciprofloxacin and gentamicin. The majority of OXA-48 producing isolates were resistant to ertapenem but susceptible to imipenem and meropenem. Nine strains transferred ertapenem resistance to E. coli recipient strain. Thirty-nine strains were phenotypically positive for ESBLs and harbored group 1 of CTX-M β-lactamases. OXA-48 was detected in 39 isolates, KPC-2 in four and NDM-1 in one isolate. The isolates belonged to six PFGE clusters. All isolates were found to be resistant to serum bactericidal activity and all except four strains positive for KPC, produced β-hemolysins. String test indicating hypermucosity was positive in only one KPC producing organism. Conclusions The study demonstrated the ability of K. pneumoniae to accumulate different resistance and virulence determinants. We reported dissemination of colistin resistant K. pneumoniae in five hospitals, located in different geographic regions of Croatia and in the outpatients setting. mcr genes responsible for transferable colistin resistance were not found, indicating that resistance was probably due to chromosomal mutations.