XPS and DFT study of Sn incorporation into ZnO and TiO2 host matrices by pulsed ion implantation

Bulk and thin-film ZnO and TiO2 samples were doped with Sn by pulsed ion implantation and studied by means of X-ray photoelectron core-level and valence-band spectroscopy as well as density functional theory calculations for a comprehensive study of the incorporation of Sn. XPS spectral analysis showed that isovalent Sn cation substitution occurs in both zinc oxide (Sn2+Zn2+) and titanium dioxide (Sn4+Ti4+) for bulk and film morphologies. For TiO2 films, the implantation also led to occupation of interstitials by dopant ions, which induced the clustering of substituted and embedded Sn atoms; this did not occur in ZnO:Sn film samples. Density functional theory (DFT) formation energies were calculated of various incorporation processes, explaining the prevalence of substitutional defects in both matrices. Possible mechanisms and reasons for the observed trends in Sn incorporation into the ZnO and TiO2 matrices are discussed.