15. Delayed-Return Hunter-Gatherers in Africa? Historic Perspectives from the Okiek and Archaeological Perspectives from the Kansyore

The material characteristics and past distribution of delayed­ return hunter-gatherers in Africa are investigated through ethnoarchae­ ological research among the Okiek and an archaeological study of the Kansyore. We recognize groups with delays in return but without hier­ archy as moderate delayed-return hlmter-gatherers. The Ownership Model, developed here, allows identification of such groups through in­ dicators of ownership: repeated use of sites, large quantities of ceramics, as well as specialized tools, and a rich and predictable resource base. The presence of such positive indicators must be combined with the absence of lines of evidence for complex delayed-rehlrn hunter-gatherers: large sites, permanent structures, and elaborate material cui hIre or exotic items. We conclude that the Kansyore were moderate delayed-return hunter-gatherers and that there were probably forms of delayed-return hunter-gatherers in a number of contexts in Africa during the Holocene. Their identification will assist consideration of the effect of factors such as latihlde on the development of delayed-rehlrn hunter-gatherer sys­ tems worldwide.