Migratory flight strategies of Levant sparrowhawks: time or energy minimization? ☆

Abstract Diurnal and nocturnal flight paths of 364 Levant sparrowhawks, Accipiter brevipes , were recorded by radar and used to analyse migratory strategies. Soaring-gliding was the predominant flight strategy during the day when thermals were available. Also during the day, and at night, flapping-gliding flight was used. Levant sparrowhawks flew at similar altitudes as other migrating raptors in Israel during the day; however, they showed different diurnal patterns, using flapping flight at high altitudes soon after sunrise and late in the afternoon. Migratory directions were strongly concentrated on a south-southwest–north-northeast axis in spring and autumn, whereby birds compensated for lateral drift. Soaring-gliding birds maximized cross-country airspeed according to optimal flight theory and, thus, minimized time needed per distance. In flapping-gliding flight, they adjusted their airspeed with respect to the wind to fly at the maximum range speed, suggesting that they minimized energy consumption per distance. Calculations based on aerodynamic flight theory showed that the optimal migratory strategy of a Levant sparrowhawk with respect to time and energy depends on feeding conditions en route: in poor conditions, both time and energy are minimized by a pure soaring-gliding flight strategy. If food is available en route, soaring-gliding flight should be combined with flapping flight when no thermals are available, as this will minimize time spent on migration. The evidence for both strategies is discussed.