The Skeleton and its Adaptation to Gravity

The sections in this article are: 1 Evolution and Bone 2 Skeletal Physiology 2.1 Bone Cells 2.2 Skeletal Tissue 3 Musculoskeletal Mechanics 3.1 Gravity and Static Equilibrium 3.2 Activity and Dynamic Equilibrium 3.3 External Loading History 3.4 Muscle and Bone Forces 3.5 Bone Mechanical Properties 3.6 Biological Scaling 3.7 Mathematical Models of Adaptation 3.8 Functional Adaptation to Altered Loading 4 Calcium Metabolism 4.1 Total Body Calcium 4.2 Calcium Kinetics 4.3 Calcium Balance 4.4 Distribution of Mineral in the Skeleton 4.5 Calcium Homeostasis and the Calcium Endocrine System 5 Bone Cellular and Tissue Adaptation 5.1 In Vivo Bone Tissue 5.2 Organ Culture 5.3 Bone Cell Cultures 6 Biomineralization 7 Summary