Extracting 3-D information from SEM and TEM images: Approaches and applications in the physical sciences

Techniques for extracting 3-D information from TEM samples in life sciences have considerably progressed in recent years. One approach has been the use of serial prepared by ultramicrotomy from which the volume of the sample and of various constituents can be reconstructed. In the case of engineering materials, however, ultramicrotomy generally induces severe deformation resulting in a large density of structural defects (dislocations, stacking faults etc.). This leads to significant diffraction contrast effects which mask microstructural features such as second phase particles, precipitates etc. Recently, a series of TEM bright field images taken at different tilts have been used in combination with image analysis to determine the volume fraction (V{sub f}) of second phase particles in thin foils of aluminum alloys. Although the technique was successful to remove most of the diffraction contrast effects and to make the particles visible, the need to acquire and process a large number of images makes the technique laborious and can lead to artefacts.