Cardiovascular disease: Sex and gender evidence in acute ischemic syndrome and heart failure

Abstract Cardiovascular disease (CVD) remains the leading cause of mortality for both men and women in the United States. Sex differences have been noted in the prevalence, presentation, management, and prognosis of acute cardiovascular conditions, including those associated with autonomic regulation, hypertension, diabetes, obesity, vascular, and cardiac remodeling. Variation in lifestyle along with social and cultural practices by gender further contributes to the differences. This chapter presents the latest clinical perspectives on CVDs, focusing on ischemic heart diseases and congestive heart failure. Particular attention is paid to aspects that are unique to sex and gender as they relate to primary care practice in the management of CVD.