A Historical Survey of Research Regarding Constructed-Response Formats

This chapter chronicles ETS contributions related to the use of constructed-response item formats. The use of constructed-response formats in testing dates back to imperial China, where tests were used in the selection of civil servants. In the United States, the multiple-choice format became dominant during the twentieth century. When ETS was founded in 1947, postsecondary admissions testing was largely based on tests consisting of such items. However, from the start, there were two camps at ETS: those staff members who believed that multiple-choice tests were sufficient for assessing “verbal” skills and those members who believed that “direct” forms of assessment requiring written responses were critical. For the use of constructed-response formats to be feasible, several challenges would need to be overcome. Research at ETS was instrumental in overcoming those challenges.