Design of High-Efficiency SPADs for LiDAR Applications in 110nm CIS Technology

Single photon avalanche diodes (SPADs) featuring a high detection rate of near-IR photons are much desired for outdoor LiDAR based on direct time-of-flight (ToF). This article presents the complete design flow of a SPAD detector for LiDAR. First, the selection of the emitter wavelength is discussed, considering the maximum allowed power underlying eye safety regulations, solar irradiance, and reflected signal power. Then, the choice of the SPAD structure is discussed based on the TCAD simulation of quantum efficiency and crosstalk. Next, the proposed P-well/ Deep N-well SPAD is explained. The electro-optical characterization of the detectors is presented as well. The performance of the time-of-flight image sensors is determined by the characteristics of the individual SPADs. To fully characterize this technology, devices with various sizes, shapes, and guard ring widths have been fabricated and tested. The measured mean breakdown voltage is 18 V. The proposed structure has a 0.4 Hz/ $\mu $ m2 dark count rate and 0.5% afterpulsing. The FWHM (total) jitter and photon detection probability at 850nm wavelength are of 92 ps and 10%. All figures have been measured at 3 V excess voltage. Finally, the performance of the SPAD detector is analyzed by evaluating the signal-to-noise ratio at different acquisition times. Distance ranging measurements have been performed, achieving a depth resolution of 1 cm up to 6.3 m range.