Interactions Between the Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis and Immune System During Viral Infection: Pathways for Environmental Effects on Disease Expression

The sections in this article are: 1 Immune Responses to Viral Infection 1.1 Early Innate Immunity 1.2 Late Adaptive Immunity 2 Pathology During Viral Infection 2.1 Cell-Mediated Pathology 2.2 Cytokine-Mediated Pathology 3 Cytokine Pathways for Glucocorticoid Induction During Viral Infection [“Starting the Loop”] 3.1 Glucocorticoid Induction during Viral Infection 3.2 Cytokines and Glucocorticoid Induction during Viral Infection 4 Central Nervous System/Neuroendocrine Pathways for Glucocorticoid Induction During Viral Infection (“Making the Connection”) 4.1 Pathways by which Peripheral Cytokine Signals Reach the Brain 4.2 Cytokine Network in the Central Nervous System 4.3 Cytokines and Behavior 5 Viral Infection, Glucocorticoid Availability, and Glucocorticoid Receptor Expression and Function (“Delivering and Receiving The Signal”) 5.1 Corticosteroid-Binding Globulin and 11β-Hydroxysteroid Dehydrogenase 5.2 Glucocorticoid Receptor Changes during Viral Infection 5.3 Cytokines as Potential Mediators of Glucocorticoid Receptor Changes during Viral Infection 6 Endogenous Glucocorticoids and Host Responses to Viral Infection (“Shaping The Response, Protection, and Closing the Loop”) 6.1 Impact of Stress on Immune Responses to Viral Infection 6.2 Glucocorticoids as the Mediator of Stress Effects on Viral Immunity 7 Summary