Evidence for robustness and universality of tunable-barrier electron pumps

We review recent precision measurements on semiconductor tunable-barrier electron pumps operating in ratchet mode. Seven studies on five different designs of pumps have reported measurements of the pump current with relative combined uncertainties around $10^{-6}$ or less. Combined with theoretical models of electron capture by the pumps, this experimental data is encouraging evidence that the pumps operate according to a universal mechanism, independent of the details of device design. Evidence for robustness of the pump current against changes in the control parameters is at a more preliminary stage, but also encouraging, with two studies reporting robustness of the pump current against 3 or more parameters in the range of $\sim 5 \times 10^{-7}$ to $\sim 2 \times 10^{-6}$. This review highlights the need for an agreed protocol for tuning the electron pump for optimal operation, as well as more rigorous evaluations of the robustness in a wide range of pump designs.