Hmong Students' Perceptions of Their Family Environment: A Consensual Qualitative Analysis of Family Photos1

AbstractAlthough various studies have examined the home environment of low-income families and its impact on children's development, limited research has been done to investigate the impact of home environment on Hmong American families, especially those who live below the federal poverty line. The purpose of this study was to document from the students' perspective what it is like to live and grow up in a poor family. Fifteen Hmong students in 5th through 8th grades took part in the photovoice project. The consensual qualitative analyses of the photos and interviews revealed two domains (family physical home environment and family activities), seven themes (crowded space, unkempt space, equipped with media, generational and gender separation, parental involvement, organization of daily life, and social connections) and 38 core ideas. Some implications of the study are proposed for educators who work with Hmong families.Keywords: Hmong K-12 students, home environments, poverty, educationHmong Students' Perceptions of Their Family Environment: A Consensual Qualitative Analysis of Family PhotosThe United States is getting "browner," partly due to the post 1965 influx of immigrants. For example, between 1960 and 1993, about 18.6 million legal immigrants were admitted to the United States, and 79% of these immigrants were from Asia, Latin America, and the Caribbean (Glenn, 2008; Rumbaut, 1997). Most Asian immigrants arriving at America's shores during this period were from Southeast Asia, especially from Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam. Unlike immigrants from Latin America and the Caribbean, Southeast Asians were refugees. As refugees, they possess few human resources (Rumbaut, 1991), and their prior work experiences in their native country are not transferable to the United States (McNall et al., 1994). As a result, many Southeast Asian families tend to be poor (Sakamoto & Woo, 2007; U.S. Census Bureau, 2010). Hmong, in particular, have the highest proportion of family income below the federal poverty line (25.3%) compared to the U.S. population (10.5%) and Asian Americans as a whole (8.7%) (U.S. Census Bureau, 2010).Being poor also limits where people live. According to the U.S. Census Bureau (2010), about 70% of Southeast Asians live in major urban areas. For example, in Minnesota more than 50% of the Hmong are concentrated in the Twin Cities (the major metropolitan area of Minnesota) and many live in poor neighborhoods (Xiong, Yang, & Lee, 2008). Living in poor neighborhoods impacts children's development. For example, studies indicate that poor families tend to live in overcrowded spaces (Bradley et al., 2001; Evans, 2004), and they dwell in homes that are exposed to higher levels of nitrogen dioxide, carbon monoxide, and radon (Chi & Laquatra, 1990; Goldstein, Andrews, & Hartel, 1988). They also reside in spaces that have fewer resources such as age-appropriate toys and books, computers, and the Internet (Duncan, Brooks- Gunn, & Klebanov, 1994; Larson & Verma, 1999). Parents that are low-income tend to be more stressed and less cognitively stimulating for their children (Farah et al., 2008). Children living in poor homes are also more likely to develop asthma due to the high level of allergen exposures (Sarpong, Hamilton, Eggleston, & Adkinson, 1996) and are less likely to be ready for school (Xiong, Yang, & Lee, 2008).Lareau (2002) observed and interviewed over 88 White and African American children, ages 8 through 10, who were from middle-class, working, and poor families to learn about the relationship between class and family home environment. She found that middle-class and poor families were significantly different from one another in several indicators. For example, in both African American and White middle-class families, children's lives were filled with structured activities, which were often scheduled by their parents. These parents wanted to foster the talents of the child by enrolling them into multiple after-school activities. …