Coupled climate-carbon cycle simulation of the Last Glacial Maximum atmospheric CO 2 decrease using a large ensemble of modern plausible parameter sets

Abstract. During the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM), atmospheric CO 2 was around 90 ppmv lower than during the preindustrial period. Despite years of research, however, the exact mechanisms leading to the glacial atmospheric CO 2 drop are still not entirely understood. Here, a large (471-member) ensemble of GENIE-1 simulations is used to simulate the equilibrium LGM minus preindustrial atmospheric CO 2 concentration difference (ΔCO 2 ). The ensemble has previously been weakly constrained with modern observations and was designed to allow for a wide range of large-scale feedback response strengths. Out of the 471 simulations, 315 complete without evidence of numerical instability, and with a ΔCO 2 that centres around −20 ppmv. Roughly a quarter of the 315 runs predict a more significant atmospheric CO 2 drop, between ~ 30 and 90 ppmv. This range captures the error in the model's process representations and the impact of processes which may be important for ΔCO 2 but are not included in the model. These runs jointly constitute what we refer to as the plausible glacial atmospheric CO 2 change-filtered (PGACF) ensemble . Our analyses suggest that decreasing LGM atmospheric CO 2 tends to be associated with decreasing SSTs, increasing sea ice area, a weakening of the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC), a strengthening of the Antarctic Bottom Water (AABW) cell in the Atlantic Ocean, a decreasing ocean biological productivity, an increasing CaCO 3 weathering flux, an increasing terrestrial biosphere carbon inventory and an increasing deep-sea CaCO 3 burial flux. The increases in terrestrial biosphere carbon are predominantly due to our choice to preserve rather than destroy carbon in ice sheet areas. However, the ensemble soil respiration also tends to decrease significantly more than net photosynthesis, resulting in relatively large increases in non-burial carbon. In a majority of simulations, the terrestrial biosphere carbon increases are also accompanied by decreases in ocean carbon and increases in lithospheric carbon. In total, however, we find there are 5 different ways of achieving a plausible ΔCO 2 in terms of the sign of individual carbon reservoir changes. The PGACF ensemble members also predict both positive and negative changes in global particulate organic carbon (POC) flux, AMOC and AABW cell strengths, and global CaCO 3 burial flux. Comparison of the PGACF ensemble results against observations suggests that the simulated LGM physical climate and biogeochemical changes are mostly of the right sign and magnitude or within the range of observational error, except for the change in global deep-sea CaCO 3 burial flux – which tends to be overestimated. We note that changing CaCO 3 weathering flux is a variable parameter (included to account for variation in both the CaCO 3 weathering rate and the un-modelled CaCO 3 shallow water deposition flux), and this parameter is strongly associated with changes in global CaCO 3 burial rate. The increasing terrestrial carbon inventory is also likely to have contributed to the LGM increase in deep-sea CaCO 3 burial flux via the process of carbonate compensation. However, we do not yet rule out either of these processes as causes of ΔCO 2 since missing processes such as Si fertilisation, Si leakage and the effect of decreasing SSTs on CaCO 3 production may have introduced a high LGM global CaCO 3 burial rate bias. Including these processes would, all else held constant, lower the rain ratio seen by the sediments and result in a decrease in atmospheric CO 2 and increase in ocean carbon. Despite not modelling Δ 14 C (atm (DIC)) and δ 13 C (atm (DIC)) , we also highlight some ways in which our results may potentially be reconciled with these records.