CMOS-based sensors and actuators

In many applications, up to millions of sensors or actuators have to be connected to the outside world, making the monolithic integration of circuits mandatory. Monolithic integration is also pursued for mass-produced transducers. Today, monolithic devices include visible and IR imagers, displays, inkjet heads, biochemical and physical sensors. Monolithic integration of transducer-specific processes (such as micromachining) with standard CMOS processes is possible, albeit at an increase of process complexity.