Emerging fungal threats to European amphibians: implications for hygiene measures

Infections with the chytrid fungi Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd) and Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans (Bsal) are widespread throughout Europe. In northern Europe amphibian populations seem to co-exist with Bd, with only few reports of Bd-linked mortality. Bsal, however, causes mortality and steep population declines in fire salamanders (Salamandra salamandra) at several sites in Belgium, the Netherlands and Germany and in several captive collections of European salamander species. The development of mitigation strategies that limit the effects of local Bsal outbreaks on amphibian populations and curb the funguses geographical expansion is crucial but at the moment there is no one-size-fits-all solution. Additionally, there is a continuous threat of introduction of hypervirulent Bd or Bsal strains or even as yet unknown pathogens that lead to further disease driven loss of amphibian diversity. Developing proper hygiene protocols to prevent disease transmission is crucial. Any such protocol for fieldwork and handling amphibians in the field and in laboratories should target the known amphibian pathogens. With this presentation we aim to sketch a general background on chytrid infections in northern Europe and present results of in vitro and in vivo experiments assessing the efficacy of simple hygiene measures (commonly used disinfectants and the use of nitrile gloves) to prevent further spread of Bd and Bsal.