Lithology and the distribution of Early Roman-era tombs in Jerusalem’s necropolis

During the last 150 years, various archaeological excavations and surveys revealed approximately 900 rock-cut tombs in the extensive necropolis surrounding ancient Jerusalem, dated to the late Hellenistic and Early Roman periods. The research goals are to examine the spatial distribution of these tombs in relation to the lithological units and rock hardness and to examine the diverse methods by which the ancient masons solved various lithological defects they encountered during the tomb excavation. We used field observations and Schmidt hammer tests to determine the rock hardness and the lithological properties. Our study demonstrates that the substrate played a crucial role in the establishment of the city and residents’ living conditions and that the presence or absence of caves in certain areas can be explained lithologically. Most tombs found west of the city were excavated in the Weradim Formation (13.7%); those found north of the city were mainly hewn into the well-bedded Nezer Formation (20.7%); an...