Molecular cloning reveals co-occurring species behind red tide blooms of the harmful dinoflagellate Cochlodinium polykrikoides

Abstract Red tides caused by the marine dinoflagellate Cochlodinium polykrikoides Margalef pose significant environmental problems worldwide. Recently, the existence of severe blooms attributable to a single Cochlodinium Schutt species has been questioned by many researchers. Herein we investigated the dinoflagellate composition of harmful algal blooms (HABs) attributed to C . polykrikoides in Korean coastal waters at nine different stations (St.). The component species of Cochlodinium blooms were examined by using microscopic and gene-cloning methods. In the nine study areas, C . polykrikoides was the predominant species of HABs in St. 2, 4, 7, and St. 9. Based on the morphological identification, the bloom was initially thought to be caused only by C . polykrikoides ; however, we detected additional bloom-forming dinoflagellates ( Polykrikos schwartzii Butschli and Polykrikos kofoidii Chatton), and diatoms ( Pseudo-nitzschia americana (Hasle) Fryxell) along with C . polykrikoides . The parasitic dinoflagellates Amoebophrya Koeppen and Euduboscquella Coats, Bachvaroff & Delwiche were found to be co-located with Cochlodinium in our study, and for the first time, Cochlodinium fulvescens Iwataki, Kawami & Matsuoka was detected in Korea (west coast). These results suggest co-existence of multiple dinoflagellates in bloom populations of Cochlodinium and describe the composition of other dinoflagellate blooms (e.g., Polykrikos spp.) in Korean coastal regions. This co-occurrence may be considered during efforts to monitor and control HABs.