Cognitive conflicts in dynamic systems

In this chapter, we focus on dynamic systems i.e. systems whose state can change without direct action from the operator, such as transport and process control. Within these systems, we will adopt a psychological standpoint to address some HMI problems. We are particularly interested in cognitive conflicts, i.e. situations in which the way a system is mentally represented by its user shows some incompatibility with the system's actual behaviour. Namely, we investigate the extent to which a discrepancy between the operator's understanding of the system and what the system actually does can lead to a degraded interaction. We will restrict our discussions to flightdeck systems, based on examples from accidents in commercial aviation. After defining cognitive conflicts, we provide two examples of aviation accidents that can be interpreted using this concept. We analyse these accidents in cognitive terms and explain how the mismatch between the crew's expectations and the actual behaviour of the aircraft contributed to the mishap. We then discuss two possible dimensions related to the remediation of cognitive conflicts (namely assistance tools and transparent systems) and provide some general guidelines on the structure of HMI in dynamic, critical, computer-based systems.