Stable isotopic evidence for anaerobic maintained sulphate discharge in a polythermal glacier

Abstract To understand the sources and sinks of sulphate and associated biogeochemical processes in a High Arctic environment, late winter snowpacks, the summer melt-waters and rock samples were collected and analysed for major ions and stable isotope tracers (δ 18 O, δ 34 S). The SO 4 2 ¯/Cl¯ ratio reveal that more than 87% of sulphate (frequently > 95%) of total sulphate carried by the subglacial runoff and proglacial streams was derived from non-snowpack sources. The proximity of non-snowpack sulphate δ 34 S (∼8–19‰) to the δ 34 S of the major rocks in the vicinity (∼−6 to +18‰) suggest that the non-snowpack sulphate was principally derived from rock weathering. Furthermore, Ca 2+ +Mg 2+ /SO 4 2 ˉ molar shows that sulphate acquisition in the meltwaters was controlled by two major processes: 1) coupled-sulphide carbonate weathering (molar ratio ∼ 2) and, 2) re-dissolution of secondary salts (molar ratio ∼ 1). The δ 34 S–SO 4  = +19.4‰ > δ 34 S–S of rock, accompanied by increased sulphate concentration also indicates an input from re-dissolution of secondary salts. Overall, δ 18 O composition of these non-snowpack sulphate (−11.9 to −2.2‰) mostly stayed below the threshold δ 18 O value (−6.7 to −3.3‰) for minimum O 2 condition, suggesting that certain proportion of sulphate was regularly supplied from anaerobic sulphide oxidation.