Area-based quality control of airborne laser scanning 3D models for different land classes using terrestrial laser scanning: sample survey in Houston, USA

Airborne laser scanning ALS is a remote-sensing technique that provides scale-accurate 3D models consisting of dense point clouds with x, y planimetric coordinates and altitude z. Using ALS, very high-resolution VHR digital surface models DSMs have been widely used for commercial and scientific applications since the early 1990s. Although there is widespread usage, there has been little comprehensive investigation of quality control for ALS DSMs in the literature, as most studies have been limited to assessing point-based vertical accuracy. This article is dedicated to investigating the quality of ALS DSMs for different land classes using statistical and visual approaches based on absolute and relative vertical accuracy metrics. Rather than a limited number of ground control points GCP, the model-to-model-based approach is applied and DSMs derived from terrestrial laser scanning TLS point clouds that have around 5 mm absolute and 3 mm relative geolocation accuracy were used as the reference data for comparison. The results demonstrate that in open, grass, and building land classes, the ALS DSMs reached both standard deviation σ and normalized median absolute deviation NMAD of 3–5 cm after the elimination of any systematic biases. This result sufficiently satisfies the vertical accuracy requirements for 1/1000-scale topographic maps determined by National Digital Elevation Program NDEP specifications. In tall vegetation, a higher number of discrepancies larger than 0.5 m exist, reversing the relation between σ and NMAD. These vegetation errors also do not appear to be normally distributed. As an additional investigation, the performance of ALS DEMs under dense high-vegetation areas was assessed. These under-canopy ALS DEMs, created using only classified ground returns, offer both σ and NMAD of 12–14 cm, a performance level that is difficult to achieve under-canopy using photogrammetric techniques.