Heart Snapshot: a broadly validated smartphone measure of VO2max for collection of real world data

Expanding access to precision medicine will increasingly require that patient biometrics can be measured in remote care settings. VO2max, the maximum volume of oxygen usable during intense exercise, is one of the most predictive biometric risk factors for cardiovascular disease, frailty, and overall mortality. However, VO2max measurements are rarely performed in clinical care or large-scale epidemiologic studies due to the high cost, participant burden, and need for specialized laboratory equipment and staff. To overcome these barriers, we developed two smartphone sensor-based protocols for estimating VO2max: a generalization of a 12-minute run test (12-MRT) and a submaximal 3-minute step test (3-MST). In laboratory settings, Lins concordance for these two tests relative to gold standard VO2max testing was pc=0.66 for 12-MRT and pc=0.61 for 3-MST. Relative to silver standards (Cooper/Tecumseh protocols), concordance was pc=0.96 and pc=0.94, respectively. However, in remote settings, 12-MRT was significantly less concordant with gold standard (pc=0.25) compared to 3-MST (pc=0.61), though both had high test-retest reliability (ICC=0.88 and 0.86, respectively). These results demonstrate the importance of real-world evidence for validation of digital health measurements. In order to validate 3-MST in a broadly representative population in accordance with the All of Us Research Program for which this measurement was developed, the camera-based heart rate measurement was investigated for potential bias. No systematic measurement error was observed that corresponded to skin pigmentation level, operating system, or cost of the phone used. The smartphone-based 3-MST protocol, here termed Heart Snapshot, maintained fidelity across demographic variation in age and sex, across diverse skin pigmentation, and between iOS and Android implementations of various smartphone models. The source code for these smartphone measurements, along with the data used to validate them,6 are openly available to the research community.