Effects of Gravity, Microgravity or Microgravity Simulation on Early Mammalian Development

Plant and animal life forms evolved mechanisms for sensing and responding to gravity on Earth where homeo-static needs require responses. The lack of gravity, such as in the International Space Station (ISS), causes acute, intra-generational changes in the quality of life. These include maintaining calcium levels in bone, main-taining muscle tone, and disturbances in the vestibular apparatus in the ears. These problems decrease work efficiency and quality of life of humans not only during microgravity exposures but also after return to higher gravity on Earth or destinations such as Mars or the Moon. It has been hypothesized that lack of gravity during mammalian development may cause prenatal, postnatal and transgenerational effects that conflict with the en-vironment, especially if the developing organism and its progeny are returned, or introduced de novo, into the varied gravity environments mentioned above. Although chicken and frog pre-gastrulation development, as well as plant root development, have...