Multi-layered Natural Resources Management in Open and Closed Commons: A case study on the right of access and the state, community and farm commons in Norway

1. Purpose of study With the growing importance of sustainable management and use of natural resources, expectations for the role of the commons have been increasingly raised (Murota 2009). There are various arguments regarding the definition of the commons. In this paper, however, we use the term commons to refer to institutionalized systems for the collective management and use of natural resources, as well as natural resources themselves as targets. Thus, commons here not only denotes the specific commons which historically existed and are still existing in England and Wales but also the commons institutions in various nations and regions, including iriai in Japan, alp in Switzerland and sasi in East Indies. Studies on the commons in such context have been implemented worldwide (Ostrom 1990). In particular, a great deal of discussion has taken place regarding the local commons in developing countries. However, when discussing the commons in today's advanced industrial countries, it is not realistic to assume that they are existing in complete isolation from outside influence. It is increasingly essential to discuss to what extent the involvement of interested parties outside the commons can be allowed (Mitsumata, Morimoto and Murota 2008). To do so, this paper adopts a concept of open and closed commons.