Crowding at Cape Lookout National Seashore: an examination of the influence of visitor characteristics on encounter norms and perceived crowding

Outdoor recreation researchers have typically defined "crowding" as a negative evaluation of the social atmosphere of an area. According to normative theory, individuals have standards (norms) regarding the appropriateness of different levels and types of recreational use. The purpose of this study was to examine the influences of visitor characteristics on the formation of encounter norms and perceived crowding levels at Cape Lookout National Seashore off the coast of North Carolina. Results suggest that visitor expectations, vehicle use, and visitor hometown population density were significantly related to perceived crowding levels. Implications for managing crowding expectations are discussed.