Unequal ecological exchange in the era of global value chains: The case of Latin America

Abstract International trade in ecological values is used to estimate the evolution of unequal ecological exchange of Latin America with developed regions, in the context of enhancing global value chains (1990–2015). The conceptual framework of unequal ecological exchange is operationalized using a multiregional input-output model to estimate the ecological exchange of Latin America with both developed and undeveloped regions, measured by 22 indicators representative of land use, water consumption, carbon emissions, and raw materials. The results suggest that this unequal exchange persists, even with more intensive results following the trends of international fragmentation of production.