Immunotherapy for urothelial cancer: from BCG to checkpoint inhibitors and beyond.

Since its introduction almost 40 years ago, intravesical BCG for non-muscle invasive bladder cancer remains one of the most successful cancer immunotherapies. However, up to 40% of patients will progress after BCG therapy and develop invasive bladder cancer. Despite its extensive clinical use, we are only beginning to understand how BCG works. Here we review preclinical and clinical data that implicate BCG-induced Th1 and cytotoxic cellular immune responses in cancer regression. We propose that future immunotherapies should aim to augment Th1 and/or cellular responses in those that fail BCG therapy. We review clinical trials of immunotherapy in bladder cancer with a focus on the promising role of checkpoint blockade inhibitors that target the programmed cell death 1/programmed death-ligand 1 (PD-L1) axis and/or cytotoxic T lymphocyte antigen 4.