The Management of Crises and Tribulations

National crises leading to public tribulations, such as in war and in depression, prompted management to seek solutions in centralized systems of authority and in autocratic styles of leadership. These "solutions" tended to remain in place after an emergency had ended. The resulting increase in managerial power, based on hierarchy, became institutionalized, and that encouraged abuses that now jeopardize management legitimacy. The management project for the millennium must be the restoration of legitimacy either by reform or by revolution. An agenda for management's renewal is suggested.