Spatial distribution of stable isotopes in surface water on the upper Indus River basin (UIRB): Implications for moisture source and paleoelevation reconstruction

Abstract Appropriate characterisation of isotope signatures (δ18O and δD) of groundwater, glaciers, and surface water in the Himalayan catchment are important for refining the sources of moisture and developing a modern isotope–elevation relationship for paleoelevation reconstructions. The Indus River located in Western Himalaya is previously unexplored in respect of the variation in water isotopic composition with elevation. In this study, water samples (n = 96) were collected from mainstream, tributaries, streams, glaciers, groundwater, lakes, hot springs, and pond water during the summer season. Results found that δ18O signatures of the mainstream, tributaries and groundwater range from −15.1‰ to −12.3‰, −16.5‰ to −12‰, −13.8‰ to −12‰, with a mean value of −13.6‰, −14.7‰, −12.8‰, respectively. There was a northward rise in δ18O by 1.30‰ per degree of latitude in the tributary waters. The d-excess and δ18O values suggested that the key source of moisture in the studied river basin was mainly from westerlies and southwest monsoons. Thus, regional moisture recycling and subcloud evaporation contributed little in supplying moisture to the precipitation. The isotopic signature (δ18O) of the tributary stream and its surrounding regions conformed to a best-fit second-order polynomial relationship between δ18O and elevation over 3500 masl. Moreover, an δ18O elevation slope of −2‰/km is also established in this study area. This isotope–elevation relationship will be highly useful and can be applied to the Indus River and other Himalayan rivers for paleoelevation reconstruction.