Protected areas for seabirds in German offshore waters: Designation, retrospective consideration and current perspectives

Abstract Here, we discuss the scientific rationale behind the identification and selection of marine protected areas (MPAs) for birds in the German Exclusive Economic Zones of the North Sea and the Baltic Sea, based on the European Union (EU) Birds Directive. Seabird distributions were determined using internationally standardised transect counts from ships and aircraft. Their distributions were analysed using geostatistical interpolation methods to derive concentration areas for each species. Two Special Protection Areas (SPAs) were proposed based on the distributions of all species. These were subsequently evaluated by the relevant nature conservation authorities and finally designated by the Federal Environmental Ministry. Long-term data on seabird abundance and distribution collected during and after the SPA designation process revealed the same major concentration areas as in the preceding years, indicating that the overall observed patterns were stable and reproducible, despite small-scale spatial and inter-annual variations. The designation concepts provided by the EU Birds Directive thus appear to be suitable for the appropriate designation of MPAs for birds in offshore waters. However, adequate management tools for European offshore MPAs for birds, e.g. the regulation of fisheries and shipping, still remain to be developed and implemented.