Learning process by goldfish and its use of a local site as a map

Abstract The issue we address is whether an animal knows or understands the significance of learning. We constructed an animal’s own conceptualization via resolving a paradox underlying the process of learning. We found a kind of self-similar pattern in the behavior of goldfish resolving a paradoxical experimental problem. The pattern can be considered as a solution to the paradox in the experiment. An animal’s own learning should be revised through solving paradoxes. The dualism of mechanistic thinking and vitalism can thus be avoided.