Traditional urine-diversion practices in sub-urban Hanoi, Vietnam: replaced or promoted?

Northern Vietnam has a history of using urine diversion ( i.e ., UD) toilets with agricultural use of excreta. This study tried to identify the current practices of UD toilets in suburban Hanoi, Vietnam. An interview survey to 120 households showed that UD toilets were used by 26.7% of households, of which most were double-vault UD toilets. Human wastes were used by 73.0% of vault toilets. It was interpreted that they are still recognized as not wastes but fertilizers especially by farming households in recent sub-urban Hanoi. Double-vaults UD toilets were used in significantly old houses compared to flush toilets with p