Metabolomic profiling of urine: response to a randomised, controlled feeding study of select fruits and vegetables, and application to an observational study.

Metabolomic profiles were used to characterize the effects of consuming a high-phytochemical diet compared to a diet devoid of fruits and vegetables in a randomized trial and cross-sectional study. In the trial, 8 h fasting urine from healthy men (n=5) and women (n=5) was collected after a 2-week randomized, controlled trial of 2 diet periods: a diet rich in cruciferous vegetables, citrus and soy (FV n=36) and food frequency questionnaires (FFQ; n=57); intake was separately divided into tertiles of total fruit and vegetable intake for FFQ. As a group, ions individually differential between the experimental diets differentiated the observational study participants. However, only 4 ions were significant individually, differentiating the third vs. first tertile of crucifer, citrus and soy intake based on 3FDR. One of these was putatively annotated: proline betaine, a marker of citrus consumption. There were no ions significantly distinguishing tertiles by FFQ. Metabolomics assessment of controlled dietary interventions provides a more accurate and stronger characterization of diet than observational data.