The glutathionylation of p65 modulates NF-κB activity in 15-deoxy-Δ12,14-prostaglandin J2-treated endothelial cells

Abstract Protein glutathionylation is a posttranslational modification of cysteine residues with glutathione in response to mild oxidative stress. Because 15-deoxy-Δ12,14-prostaglandin J 2 (15 d-PGJ 2 ) is an electrophilic prostaglandin that can increase glutathione (GSH) levels and augment reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, we hypothesized that it induces NF-κB-p65 glutathionylation and would exert anti-inflammatory effects. Herein, we show that 15 d-PGJ 2 suppresses the expression of ICAM-1 and NF-κB-p65 nuclear translocation. 15 d-PGJ 2 upregulates the Nrf2-related glutathione synthase gene and thereby increases the GSH levels. Consistent with this, Nrf2 siRNA molecules abolish the inhibition of p65 nuclear translocation in 15 d-PGJ 2 -induced endothelial cells (ECs). ECs treated with GSSG show increased thiol modifications of p65 and also a block in TNFα-induced p65 nuclear translocation and ICAM-1 expression, but not in IκBα degradation. However, the overexpression of glutaredoxin 1 was found to be accompanied by a modest increase in NF-κB activity. Furthermore, we found that multiple cysteine residues in p65 are responsible for glutathionylation. 15 d-PGJ 2 was observed to induce p65 glutathionylation and is suppressed by a GSH synthesis inhibitor, buthionine sulfoximine, by catalase, and by Nrf2 siRNA molecules. Our results thus indicate that the GSH/ROS-dependent glutathionylation of p65 is likely to be responsible for 15 d-PGJ 2 -mediated NF-κB inactivation and for the enhanced inhibitory effects of 15 d-PGJ 2 on TNFα-treated ECs.