Regulatory B cells, A to Z.

B cells play a central role in the immune system through the production of antibodies. During the past two decades, it has become increasingly clear that B cells also have the capacity to regulate immune responses through mechanisms that extend beyond antibody production. Several types of human and murine regulatory B cells have been reported that suppress inflammatory responses in autoimmune disease, allergy, infection, transplantation, and cancer.Key suppressive molecules associated with regulatory B cell function include the cytokines IL-10, IL-35, and TGF-β as well as cell membrane-bound molecules such as programmed death-ligand 1, CD39, CD73, and aryl-hydrocarbon receptor. Regulatory B cells can be induced by a range of different stimuli, including microbial products such as TLR4 or TLR9 ligands, inflammatory cytokines such as IL-6, IL-1β, and IFN-α, as well as CD40 ligation. This review provides an overview of our current knowledge on regulatory B cells. We discuss different types of regulatory B cells, the mechanisms through which they exert their regulatory function, factors that lead to induction of regulatory B cells and their role in the alteration of inflammatory responses in different diseases.