Unexpected plasticity in the life cycle of Trypanosoma brucei

African trypanosomes cause sleeping sickness in humans and nagana in cattle. These unicellular parasites are transmitted by the bloodsucking tsetse fly. In the mammalian hosts circulation, tissues, and interstitium, at least two main life cycle stages exist: slender and stumpy bloodstream stages. Proliferating slender stage cells differentiate into cell cycle-arrested stumpy stage cells at high population densities. This developmental stage transition occurs in response to the quorum sensing factor SIF (stumpy induction factor), and is thought to fulfil two main functions. First, it auto-regulates the parasite load in the host. Second, the stumpy stage is regarded as pre-adapted for tsetse fly infection and the only stage capable of successful vector transmission. Here, we show that proliferating slender stage trypanosomes are able to complete the complex life cycle in the fly as successfully as the stumpy stage, and that a single parasite is sufficient for productive infection. Our findings not only propose a revision to the traditional rigid view of the trypanosome life cycle, but also suggest a solution to a long-acknowledged paradox in the transmission event: parasitaemia in chronic infections is characteristically low, and so the probability of a tsetse ingesting a stumpy cell during a bloodmeal is also low. The finding that proliferating slender parasites are infective to tsetse flies helps shed light on this enigma.