Variations in tumor size and position due to irregular breathing in 4D‐CT: A simulation study

Purpose: To estimate the position and volume errors in 4D-CT caused by irregular breathing. Methods: A virtual 4D-CT scanner was designed to reproduce axial mode scans with retrospective resorting. This virtual scanner creates an artificial spherical tumor based on the specifications of the user, and recreates images that might be produced by a 4D-CT scanner using a patient breathing waveform. 155 respiratory waveforms of patients were used to test the variability of 4D-CT scans. Each breathing waveform was normalized and scaled to 1, 2, and 3 cm peak-to-peak motion, and artificial tumors with 2 and 4 cm radius were simulated for each scaled waveform. The center of mass and volume of resorted 4D-CT images were calculated and compared to the expected values of center of mass and volume for the artificial tumor. Intrasubject variability was investigated by running the virtual scanner over different subintervals of each patient’s breathing waveform. Results: The average error in the center of mass location of an artificial tumor was less than 2 mm standard deviation for 2 cm motion. The corresponding average error in volume was less than 4%. In the worst-case scenarios, a center of mass error of 1.0 cm standard deviation and volume errors of 30%–60% at inhale were found. Systematic errors were observed in a subset of patients due to irregular breathing, and these errors were more pronounced when the tumor volume is smaller. Conclusions: Irregular breathing during 4D-CT simulation causes systematic errors in volume and center of mass measurements. These errors are small but depend on the tumor size, motion amplitude, and degree of breathing irregularity.