Tumor Necrosis Factor α Expression and Protein Levels after Fluid Percussion Injury in Rats: The Effect of Injury Severity and Brain Temperature

OBJECTIVE: Tumor necrosis factor α (TNFα) is elevated in some models of traumatic brain injury (TBI). However, it is unclear how TNFα messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA) expression and protein levels are affected by injury severity and posttraumatic temperature modification. This study determined the regional and temporal profile of TNFα levels after moderate and severe TBI and assessed the effects of posttraumatic hypothermia or hyperthermia on the proinflammatory cytokine. METHODS: Adult male Sprague-Dawley rats were subjected to sham procedures (no injury), moderate fluid-percussion TBI (1.8-2.2 atm), or severe fluid-percussion TBI (2.4-2.6 atm). After 1 to 22 hours of survival, animals were killed, and brain samples, cerebrospinal fluid, and serum were harvested for enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay quantification of TNFα levels. In a subsequent study, a 3-hour period of posttraumatic hypothermia (33°C) or hyperthermia (39.5°C) was applied, followed by immediate killing and cytokine assay. Another group was subjected to moderate TBI (1.8-2.2 atm), followed by killing at 15 minutes or at 1, 3, or 24 hours for TNFα reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction analysis. RESULTS: A significant increase in TNFα mRNA and protein levels in cellular lysates of injured cortex and ipsilateral hippocampus was noted by 1 hour after TBI; it was sustained to 3 hours, followed by a rapid decline. Increased injury severity was associated with increased protein levels at remote injury sites and in the injured cerebral cortex at 72 hours. Posttraumatic hypothermia significantly reduced TNFα mRNA expression in the hippocampus compared with that in normothermic rats. In contrast, no temperature effects on TNFα protein levels were documented. CONCLUSION: Rapid and marked increase in TNFα mRNA expression and protein levels follows moderate and severe TBI. Injury severity and posttraumatic temperature play a modest but significant role on TNFα expression and protein levels. These findings suggest that the effects of posttraumatic temperature on histopathological and behavioral outcome primarily may involve secondary mediators that do not operate directly through their effect on TNFα.