Extending the Use of Social Stories to Young Children with Emotional and Behavioral Disabilities.

T he academic and behavioral difficulties exhibited by students with emotional and behavioral disorders (EBD) provide educators with unique challenges. Students with EBD tend to display aggression, noncompliance, and other conduct problems at higher rates and with more stability than typically developing peers (Kauffman, 2005; Kazdin, 1987; Loeber, Farrington, Stouthamer-Loeber, & Van Kammen, 1998). For example, children with EBD have been observed to emit more negative statements toward teachers (Moore & Simpson, 1983) and to display more inappropriate behaviors (Landrum, Tankersley, & Kauffman, 2003; Walker, Shinn, O’Neill, & Ramsey, 1987) than typically developing peers. These data suggest that children with EBD can be distinguished from the general population for their behavioral excesses that often divert teacher energies away from instruction. In addition to behavioral issues, research has indicated that children with EBD also confront significant academic deficits. A recent metaanalysis found that students with EBD read nearly three-quarters of a standard deviation below same-aged peers (Reid, Gonzalez, Nordness, Trout, & Epstein, 2004). Children with EBD have also been shown to perform at a lower academic level than children with learning disabilities, despite having similar intelligence (Sabornie, Cullinan, Osborne, & Brock, 2005). In fact, some evidence has indicated that behavioral issues might impede academic progress more than learning difficulties do over time (Anderson, Kutash, & Duchnowski, 2001). These academic and behavioral deficits make educating children with EBD particularly challenging. It is not surprising, therefore, that children with severe behavior problems are often placed into more restrictive settings (U.S. Department of Education, 2005). More restrictive settings, such as self-contained classrooms and schools, provide a lower teacherstudent ratio to accommodate the various academic and behavioral needs of students with EBD. In addition to having fewer students per teacher, self-contained settings typically employ a paraeducator to offer additional instructional and management support for both teachers and students. The Study of Personnel Needs in Special Education estimated that 40% of the 400,000 special education paraeducators presently employed nationwide are assigned to classrooms for children with EBD (Carlson, Brauen, Klein, Schroll, & Willig, 2002, table 1.77). These paraeducators perform a wide range of classroom duties including one-to-one and small-group instruction, material modification, behavior management, monitoring students, supporting teachers, collecting data on students, and providing personal care. Such data indicate that paraeducators are assuming responsibilities traditionally performed by teachers (Lindsey, 1983; Miramontes, 1990; Pickett, 1986). Although paraeducators have assumed an expansion of roles and responsibilities, research has indicated that most lack the training to carry out basic instruction and behavioral duties in the classroom (Dowing, Ryndak, & Clark, 2000; French & Pickett, 1997; Giangreco, Broer, & Edelman, 2002; Wallace, Shin, Bartholomay, & Stahl, 2001). A consequence of the insufficient training provided to paraeducators is that the students with the most complex needs are being served by the members of the school community with the least preparation. Furthermore, evidence exists that few teachers are prepared to supervise paraeducators to work alongside students with disabilities (French, 2001; Salzberg & Morgan, 1995; Wallace et al., 2001). As a consequence, paraeducators may not be providing children with EBD adequate services given their range of responsibilities, lack of training, and informal supervision practices. In fact, a descriptive study on the classroom interactions of paraeducators and students with EBD revealed that approximately 70% of paraeducators sampled had zero interaction time with students (Maggin & Wehby, 2008). Furthermore, approximately 82% of the statements made from paraeducators to students were of a social nature rather than related to instructional material or classroom management. These findings raise concerns about the allocation of time and energy of paraeducators working in classrooms serving children with EBD. Concerns about the effectiveness of paraeducators working in schools have led to the implementation of federal standards to guide the hiring and use of paraeducators in classrooms. These standards have been outlined in the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB, 2001) and apply SUPERVISING PARAEDUCATORS