Evaluating ProDirect manipulation in hour of code

We examine whether augmenting traditional coding environments with ProDirect manipulation improves several learning measures. ProDirect manipulation is a novel user interaction model that provides a bidirectional link between code and outputs. Instead of reasoning abstractly about the output a program might produce, users instead directly manipulate outputs (e.g., using a keyboard and mouse). Program text is then updated to reflect the change. We report the effects on learning using a ProDirect manipulation environment versus a standard development environment for more than one hundred middle school students. To conduct the study, we built SWELL, a programming language with ProDirect manipulation features. We conclude that within the context of an Hour-of-Code course, ProDirect manipulation does not offer a significant advantage. We also make several observations regarding the way students interact with SWELL, which may inform future language design for this age group.