Assessing car dependence: Development of a comprehensive survey approach based on the concept of a travel skeleton

Abstract We define objective (car needs for daily activities) and subjective dimensions (other aspects to a car than mobility) of car dependence. We develop an integrated survey design that allows to collect typical weekly travel behavior and sociodemographic data, as well as psychological constructs. To define differing types of car dependence we used the data from an international survey undertaken in Berlin (Germany), San Francisco (USA) and Shanghai (China). We identified dissonances between individuals based on subjective and objective dimensions. The findings also showed that respondents from San Francisco were more objectively dependent on cars than respondents from Berlin or Shanghai.