A GIScience Approach to Analyzing Spatial Patterns of Voter Turnout in Omaha, Nebraska

2016 
INTRODUCTIONThe right to vote has been described as "one of the most fundamental and cherished aspects of democracy" (Hajnal and Lewis 2003, 660). Wood (2002, 209) adds that elections are at the "core of the American political system" and that "for most Americans voting is the only form of political participation . " As a result, the "analysis of voting and elections has undoubtedly become one of the principal areas of investigation" for many scholars from a variety of fields (Thomas 1968, 409).For many citizens voting is a powerful tool and an opportunity to hold elected officials accountable . Voter participation is a key element in the political process as "higher voter turnout confers legitimacy for the elected official, provides a mandate for decision making and policy making, and is an indication that voters are connected with their community and government" (Wood 2002, 209). On the other hand, low turnout "connotes apathy, frustration, anger, disengagement, alienation, and/or lack of a sense of efficacy and confidence in government . Low voter turnout is perceived to be a threat and danger to our democratic way of life" (Wood 2002, 209). Hajnal and Lewis (2003, 645) went so far as to state that the "fact that almost half of all eligible voters do not vote in presidential elections has been cited repeatedly as evidence of an ongoing crisis in American democracy. " Unfortunately, many citizens weigh the costs against the benefits of voting and opt to not participate in the political process (Highton 2004)Despite the importance attached to exercising the right to vote in presidential elections, turnout rates since their peaks in the 1800s have gradually declined over the last two centuries . Somewhat ironically, this downward trend has coincided with the "elimination of the poll tax and literacy testing" and methods like "advance voting, absentee voting, voting by mail, and more flexible and convenient registration laws have made it easier for citizens to register and vote" (Karnig and Walter 1983, 491; Wood 2002, 209) . Highton (2004, 511) points out, for example, that the National Voter Registration Act of 1993 "eliminated the costs of a special trip to register, and thereby eliminated the costs of registration for nearly all eligible voters ." Highton (2004, 511) continues, "given that all states are now required to have motor voter programs or election day registration, registration costs cannot go much lower "Low turnout has not always been the case though . 1 Following the controversial 1824 presidential election, voter participation rates jumped dramatically. The next three elections witnessed turnout rates greater than 50 percent and in the 1840 election over 80 percent of the "potential electorate" participated (Shelley et al . 1996, 77). For the remaining elections in the 1800s, voter participation rates remained high and approximately 79 percent of the eligible voters cast ballots in the 1896 election despite wide variations in turnout at the state-level . In the 1920 election, more than 25 million votes were cast for the first time; however, the voter turnout rate dipped below 50 percentSince the 1940s there has been little variation in participation rates despite the fact that more votes are being cast In 1992, for example, "more than 100 million Americans voted in a presidential election" for the first time (Shelley et al . 1996, 119). More recently, over 131 million (62 percent turnout) Americans voted in the 2008 presidential election In 2012, the number declined to an estimated 124 million (58 percent) despite the fact that there were eight million more eligible voters (Bipartisan Policy Center 2012; Roper Center Cornell University 2016; United States Election Project 2014).Multiple studies have expressed concern over declining civic engagement and voter participation rates in the United States (Twenge et al . 2012) . Meirick and Wackman (2004, 1162) contend, for example, that the American electorate is not well informed and that "without a certain degree of knowledge, people are unable to make political decisions that reflect their interests and values " Eagles and Davidson (2001) agree and add that in recent decades voter turnout has been troubling, especially among young voters who cite time constraints and lack of interest as factors that contribute to low turnout totalsSeveral educational endeavors and civic engagement programs have been created to combat issues like low voter turnout Schmidt (2011, 110, 108) interviewed students in Malawi and demonstrated that there is a "strong reciprocal relationship between the meaning of place and activities of citizens" and that "students who can identify and talk about other places in the world are better prepared to make political decisions . …
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