Brief Report on Men's Bodies and Mood: Correlates between Depressive Symptoms and Muscle Dysmorphia Symptoms

Although muscle dysmorphia (MD) is not currently a diagnosis listed in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition, Text Revision (DSM-IV-TR, American Psychiatric Association, 2000), experts agree (Grieve, 2007; Olivardia, 2001; Pope, Gruber, Choi, Olivardia, & Phillips, 1997) that the disorder exists and that it should be included in the next edition of the DSM. The diagnostic criteria of MD include: (a) a preoccupation with level of muscularity and a strong desire to increase musculature; (b) excessive weight lifting, even while injured; (c) extreme dieting, plus the addition of dietary supplements and drugs such as anabolic/androgenic steroids to increase lean muscle mass; and (d) strained or nonexistent personal relationships due to limited time to engage in social functioning (Olivardia, 2001; Pope et al., 1997). Generally found in men (Pope et al., 1997), MD usually first presents in adolescence and develops through young adulthood (Olivardia, 2001). While there is controversy over where MD should be placed in the DSM, it appears as though it will be conceptualized as a form of body dysmorphic disorder (APA, 2012), although this placement has been questioned (see Grieve, 2007, and Maida & Armstrong, 2005 for alternative placement suggestions). Grieve (2007) outlined an etiological model for the development of MD. In it, he proposed that negative affect, including feelings of depression and anxiety, directly influences the development of MD in that it provides the motivation to change behaviors and/or appearance. Chandler, Grieve, Derryberry, and Pegg (2009) found some support for this relationship vis a vis anxiety. Their results indicated that trait anxiety and obsessive compulsive disorder symptoms were highly associated with social physique anxiety and MD symptomology. Furthermore, a path analysis revealed that anxiety-related symptoms accounted for 77% of the variance in MD symptoms. Maida and Armstrong (2005) found that symptoms of obsessive-compulsive disorder as well as symptoms of hostility, both affectively negative, predicted symptoms of MD. In fact, these symptoms were better predictors of MD than somatoform symptoms, thus prompting Maida and Armstrong to argue that MD should be placed in the obsessive-compulsive disorder spectrum. Depression is another affective state with a highly negative valence. Clinically, it is characterized by experiencing a low mood most of the day for most every day, disturbances of appetite and sleep (eating or sleeping too much or too little), psychomotor retardation or agitation (feeling like moving in slow motion or very restless), feelings of worthlessness and guilt, difficulties with concentration and memory, and suicidal ideation (APA, 2000). Higher rates of depression have been associated with higher rates of eating disorders (see Phares, Steinberg, & Thompson, 2004); since it has been argued that the etiology of MD is much like that of eating disorders (Goodale, Watkins, & Cardinal, 2001; Grieve, 2007), it is hypothesized that the same relationship can be seen in those with muscle dysmorphia. Therefore, the purpose of the present study is to examine the relationship between depression and MD. It is hypothesized that symptoms of depression will be positively correlated with, and will significantly predict, symptoms of MD. METHOD Participants Participants for the study were 100 college-aged males recruited from a mid-south university. In terms of age, 88% of the participants were 18 to 25 years old, 6% were 26 to 34 years old, and 3% were 35 to 54 years old. In regards to exercise, 38% of participants reported that they lifted weighs 0 times per week, 25% reported that they lifted weights one to two times per week, 26% reported that they lifted weights three to four times per week, and 8% reported that they lifted five or more times per week. Measures Center for Epidemiologic Studies-Depression Scale (CES-D). …