Contained Use of Bacteriophages: Risk Assessment and Biosafety Recommendations

Bacteriophages are bacterial viruses and consist of a single- or double-stranded DNA or RNA protected by a protein capsid. They are able to infect bacteria by injecting their nucleic acids inside the host. The viruses multiply and induce lysis of the host cell, or they are stabilized as prophage, either inserted in the bacterial genome or as independent plasmid molecules. Bacteriophages represent the most numerous micro-organisms found on earth and play a major role in bacterial evolution by serving as a genomic reservoir in the environment and by promoting lateral gene transfer among bacteria through transduction. They also play a role in bacterial virulence through lysogenic conversion by encoding virulence factors. Bacteriophages, as well as their recombinant derivatives, are now used in a multitude of applications in the biotechnology and medical fields (e.g., as an alternative to antibiotics; tools for screening libraries of proteins, peptides or antibodies; vectors for protein and DNA vaccines; or a...