Ontogeny of the distal femoral metaphyseal surface and its relationship to locomotor behavior in hominoids

OBJECTIVE: Distal femoral metaphyseal surface morphology is highly variable in extant mammals. This variation has previously been linked to differences in locomotor behavior. We perform the first systematic survey and description of the development of this morphology in extant hominoids. MATERIALS AND METHODS: We collected 3D surface laser scans of the femora of 179 human and great ape individuals throughout all subadult stages of development. We qualitatively and quantitatively describe metaphyseal surface morphology. RESULTS: We find that the metaphysis is topographically simple in all hominoids during the fetal and infant periods relative to later developmental periods, and in apes it develops significant complexity throughout development. Humans, by contrast, retain relatively flat metaphyseal surfaces throughout ontogeny. DISCUSSION: Major shifts in morphology appear to coincide with major shifts in locomotor behavior, suggesting that metaphyseal morphology is developmentally plastic and highly dependent on the biomechanical loadings at the knee joint. This is consistent with a large body of biomedical research, which demonstrates the primacy of mechanical forces in determining growth plate ossification patterns. Additionally, specific metaphyseal morphology appears highly correlated with specific locomotor modes, suggesting that metaphyseal surface morphology will be useful for reconstructing the locomotor behavior of fossil primate taxa.