Long term ketamine and ketamine plus alcohol toxicity - what can we learn from animal models?
2013
This review addressed the adverse effects of the frequently-used recreational drug, ketamine through using
mice and monkey models. Our laboratory has documented initially that ketamine can induce the formation of
hyperphosphorlated tau (hypertau), which is a hallmark of Alzheimer’s disease (AD), in the cerebral cortex of both mice
and monkeys as well as apoptosis in neurons in these species. Besides the cerebral cortex, other centers in the central
nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS) are also influenced by ketamine. Cerebellum was found to be
down-regulated in both mice and humans after long-term of ketamine administration and it was caused by the apoptosis of
Purkinje cells. Deleterious effects in other organs reported in long-term ketamine users include of kidney dysfunction
leading to proteinuria, fibrosis of the urinary bladder and reduction in size of the urinary bladder leading to frequent
urination, increase of liver fibrosis and cardiac problems such as premature ventricular beats. Moreover, ketamine is
usually co-administrated with other chemicals such as caffeine or alcohol. It has been reported increased harmful effects
when ketamine was used in combination with the above substances. Mechanisms of damages of ketamine might be due to
1) up-regulation of NMDA receptors leading to overestimation of glutamatergic system or 2) the metabolite of ketamine
which was a hydroquinone exerted toxicity.
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