The Risks Associated with Stimulant Medication Use in Child and Adolescent Populations Diagnosed with Attention- Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder

Throughout human history, psychiatric dysfunction in child and adolescent populations has been rare. However, over the last 2 decades, psychiatric diagnoses have reached epidemic proportions-particularly in the United States. Currently, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is the most commonly diagnosed psychiatric illness in child and adolescent populations with an estimated 10-12 million children diagnosed in the United States. Over the last 2 decades, behavior patterns that were once perceived as typical, normative developmental stages have been systematically redefined by those promoting the mass labeling and drugging of children as a "chemical imbalance of the brain." Grounded in bioevolutionary theory, this article will challenge the existing medical model and will explore in-depth the risks associated with the ADHD label and the use of stimulant medication in pediatric populations. In addition, this article will examine the cultural, physical, neurological, psychological, and social correlates as they relate to the diagnosis of ADHD in America. Keywords: ADHD; attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder; methylphenidate; childhood behavioral disorder Proponents of the mass labeling and drugging of children have supported in mass a pseudo-hypothesis which suggests that children who are not attentive and who are highly active suffer from a "chemical imbalance" in the brain (i.e., attention-deficit/ hyperactivity disorder [ADHD]). However, epidemiological data continues to confirm that there exists no scientific evidence to support this recently constructed hypothesis (Baughman & Hovey, 2006). Throughout American history, psychiatric pathology in pediatric populations was rare. From the 1600s until the 1960s, ADHD did not exist in America. In the 1970s, 2,000 American children were diagnosed with a behavioral condition called "hyperactivity disorder" and the accepted standard of medical treatment was behavior modification. Currently, an estimated 12 million American children (the vast majority are boys) have been diagnosed with ADHD, and the standard treatment today consists of daily doses of methylphenidate-a dangerous and addictive Schedule II drug (Baughman & Hovey, 2006; Stolzer, 2009). DIAGNOSTIC AND STATISTICAL MANUAL DEFINITIONS AND CRITIQUE The American Psychiatric Association (APA) has defined symptoms of ADHD as fidgeting with hands or feet, running or climbing excessively, the inability to play quietly, and failure to pay attention to details (APA, 2000). ADHD is characterized by a persistent and pervasive lack of attention and/or by heightened activity level. Children with ADHD are said to be quantitatively distinct from their peers because they have difficulty with sedentary activities, boring and mundane environments, and focusing on material that does not interest them (APA, 2000). According to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th edition (DSM-IV), symptoms of this disorder are minimal or absent when a child is receiving positive reinforcement, is under close supervision, is in an interesting environment, and/or is engaged in an activity that they find enjoyable (APA, 2000). Numerous researchers have suggested that the DSM's diagnostic criterion is seriously and fundamentally flawed (Kean, 2005; Leo, 2000; Stolzer, 2005). Dr. Fred Baughman (2006), a pediatric neurologist, has questioned how one differentiates between " abnormal" and "normal" activity levels in child populations. Baughman also postulates that the DSM's diagnostic criteria lack scientific credibility because the current assessment tool (a behavioral checklist) is highly subjective and varies tremendously depending on the specific rater. The answers contained on the assessment test are limited to never, rarely, sometimes, often, and always. Scientifically speaking, these are not operationally defined universal terms, and they clearly carry different meanings depending on specific individual perception. …