Ice margin influence on glaciomarine sedimentation in the Permo—Carboniferous Dwyka Formation from the southwestern Karoo, South Africa

A persistent sedimentary unit, interbedded in massive diamictite over a distance of almost 400 km near the top of the Permo-Carboniferous Dwyka Formation in the southwestern Karoo, consists of stratified diamictite, rhythmite, lonestone argillite and black shale. The stratified diamictite facies association is interpreted as ice-marginal debris-flow, the diamictite-lonestone argillite facies association as proximal to intermediate debris-flow, debris rain and suspension settling, and the shale-diamictite facies association as distal debris-flow and suspension settling deposits. An analysis of the mudrock and diamictite facies relationships suggests deposition from a rapidly calving oscillating ice margin in the east and at a consistently retreating grounded ice margin with few icebergs in the west. Sediment sources, volume of ice rafting, resedimentation processes, ice marginal recession and advance, and configuration of the ice margin influenced the distribution of debris-flow deposits and bergstone mud in the east and resulted in a near-random facies arrangement. Due to a lack of icebergs in the west, debris-flow deposits and bergstone mud were poorly developed which reduced the number of facies transitions and variation, resulting in a more systematic upward-fining sequence.