Sequential changes in ocean circulation and biological export productivity during the last glacial–interglacial cycle: a model–data study

Abstract. We conduct a model–data analysis of the marine carbon cycle to understand and quantify the drivers of atmospheric CO2 concentration during the last glacial–interglacial cycle. We use a carbon cycle box model, “SCP-M”, combined with multiple proxy data for the atmosphere and ocean, to test for variations in ocean circulation and Southern Ocean biological export productivity across marine isotope stages spanning 130 000 years ago to the present. The model is constrained by proxy data associated with a range of environmental conditions including sea surface temperature, salinity, ocean volume, sea-ice cover and shallow-water carbonate production. Model parameters for global ocean circulation, Atlantic meridional overturning circulation and Southern Ocean biological export productivity are optimized in each marine isotope stage against proxy data for atmospheric CO2 , δ13 C and Δ14 C and deep-ocean δ13 C, Δ14 C and CO 3 2 - . Our model–data results suggest that global overturning circulation weakened during Marine Isotope Stage 5d, coincident with a ∼  25 ppm fall in atmospheric CO2 from the last interglacial period. There was a transient slowdown in Atlantic meridional overturning circulation during Marine Isotope Stage 5b, followed by a more pronounced slowdown and enhanced Southern Ocean biological export productivity during Marine Isotope Stage 4 ( ∼ −30  ppm). In this model, the Last Glacial Maximum was characterized by relatively weak global ocean and Atlantic meridional overturning circulation and increased Southern Ocean biological export productivity ( ∼ −20  ppm during MIS 3 and MIS 2). Ocean circulation and Southern Ocean biological export productivity returned to modern values by the Holocene period. The terrestrial biosphere decreased by 385 Pg C in the lead-up to the Last Glacial Maximum, followed by a period of intense regrowth during the last glacial termination and the Holocene ( ∼  600 Pg C). Slowing ocean circulation, a colder ocean and to a lesser extent shallow carbonate dissolution contributed ∼ −70  ppm to atmospheric CO2 in the ∼  100 000-year lead-up to the Last Glacial Maximum, with a further ∼ −15  ppm contributed during the glacial maximum. Our model results also suggest that an increase in Southern Ocean biological export productivity was one of the ingredients required to achieve the Last Glacial Maximum atmospheric CO2 level. We find that the incorporation of glacial–interglacial proxy data into a simple quantitative ocean transport model provides useful insights into the timing of past changes in ocean processes, enhancing our understanding of the carbon cycle during the last glacial–interglacial period.