Suppression of testosterone production by nanoparticulate TiO 2 is associated with ERK1/2-PKA-PKC signaling pathways in rat primary cultured Leydig cells

Background Nanoparticulate titanium dioxide (nano-TiO2) enters the body through various routes and causes organ damage. Exposure to nano-TiO2 is reported to cause testicular injury in mice or rats and decrease testosterone synthesis, sperm number, and motility. Importantly, nano-TiO2 suppresses testosterone production by Leydig cells (LCs) and impairs the reproductive capacity of animals.